English Views of Native Americans During Catholic-Protestant Conflict in the New World Essay Example for Free

English Views of Native Americans During Catholic-Protestant Conflict in the New World Essay English Views of Native Americans during Catholic-Protestant Conflict in the New World During the 16th and 17th century, as settlers from Europe continued to flock to the New World, technologies were being introduced that affected English views of Native Americans and how they saw Catholic, or more specifically, Spanish treatment of the Natives. Many countries wanted superiority in the Americas and to do that they needed more colonists and support from their homelands. To accomplish these goals different means were employed. For England, the New World settlements served a variety of purposes. To secure investors through stock purchases by showing them they would be well rewarded, attract new colonists, and to expand Protestantism in the New World to combat the Catholic movement in the Americas (text 38). Helping in these goals were new technologies that created some of the first propaganda. Many people in Europe feared the Native Americans, thinking of them as savage and uncivilized. Unrest and this fear among the people probably caused many to avoid even entertaining the thought of transplanting themselves and their family to an unknown continent. In 1588 Thomas Harriot published the first pamphlet about life in the New World. Describing great weather, fruitful land, and a wealth of goods these writings encouraged people to travel across the Atlantic. Along with him, painter John White, portrayed the Native Americans as a peaceful people that could easily coexist with Europeans. Taking liberties from these paintings, Theodore de Bry, a protestant from Belgium, made copperplate engravings of civilized Indians. These pictures and views of the Natives had a widespread appeal across England and alleviated fears of the New World which encouraged more settlers to take the voyage and more investors to purchase stock in colonizing companies. One of the biggest battles in the New World was between Catholic and Protestants to control the Americas. During this time Spain was the envy of Europe. With a large navy they were one of the most powerful armies in the world, wealthy, and boasted many colonies in the New World. Several countries, especially England, looked upon Spain with disdain. England being a Protestant country and Spain Catholic did nothing but increase the tension. Public opinion was very important in this power struggle. In 1598 Theodore de Bry republished Bartolome de Casa’s â€Å"Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies (text 38-39)† which helped win supporters for the Protestant movement and England’s prerogative in the Americas. Originally this book was written in 1541 about Spanish mistreatment of the Indians. De Casa’s writing along with de Bry’s graphic illustrations horrified people of the torture and killing of Indians by the Spaniards. The Protestants saw the Catholics as agents of the devil who needed to be purged from society in the New World. Ironically this thinking was hypocritical as almost all countries, including England, mistreated the Native Americans throughout colonization and for centuries to come. Many travel accounts were written over the years that portrayed a frightening and exciting New World to the Europeans. While most of these accounts were written based on opinion and very little facts, they had an important place among society and were very powerful in swaying people’s opinions about Native Americans, the New World, and rival European nations. New technologies of publishing and illustrating at the time helped spread these documents ideas and opinions faster than ever and we saw for possibly the first time ever a propaganda war.

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Hybrid tribunals are most often established in post-conflict regions where no international tribunal exists, and local capacities are insufficient to singularly cope with mass atrocity. Examples of â€Å"hybrid† tribunals include: East Timor, Cambodia, Sierra Leone, and Lebanon. In the event that an international tribunal, such as the ICC, cannot cope with the number of alleged perpetrators, hybrid tribunals also serve as an alternative accountability mechanism. A newly created â€Å"hybrid† international criminal tribunal for Syria will most effectively serve the transitional and restorative justice goals of President Bashar al-Assad’s prosecution. Although the precise definition of â€Å"hybrid† courts is still evolving, some baseline characteristics have emerged. Hybrids aim to marry the expertise and resources of the international community with the legitimacy of local actors. Generally, hybrids are comprised of mixed staff, both local and international, and compound international and national substantive and procedural law. Hybrid tribunals criticize the notion that justice is most effectively served in a wholly â€Å"international† context (dominated largely by Western mechanisms of accountability). Instead, hybrids emphasize the importance of local input in any long-term solution to post-atrocity transitional and restorative justice goals. The underlying raison d’à ©tre of a hybrid tribunal in Syria relies on the philosophical premise that post-atrocity accountability mechanisms should empower local governments and communities in order to achieve transitional and restorative justice goals. The import ance of local empowerment is especially significant in the wake of conflicts that occur within the borders of a state (i.e. civil wars). The languag... ...al infrastructure. However, the narrow mandate of the Syrian tribunal and its co-tribunals in Sierra Leone, Lebanon, and others, does not give effect to this problem. Assuming the mandate of the Syrian tribunal accords it jurisdiction over â€Å"perpetrators, organizers, sponsors, and indispensible accomplices,† consider the position of a member of the former, fallen political party that neglected to prevent the commission of atrocities but did not himself participate in them. Arguably, he may or may not â€Å"fall within the jurisdiction† of the international criminal tribunal for Syria, and amnesty laws may be recognized as a bar to prosecution. Ideally, amnesties would not be a necessary component of transition from pre- to post-conflict societies. However, a conditional limitation on the recognition of amnesties serves the more pragmatic interests of transitioning State.

Information Subsystems for E-Commerce in the Supply Chain of Amazon.com

Ecommerce – has brought about a huge revolution in the global business by incorporating both the use of Internet-based computing and information systems to work out every small business processes. Businesses use the facility of internet to efficiently drive their supply chain management systems, trading with partners, giving back fast response to customer query and to over come resource shortages as well. This paper examines the importance of information based – ecommerce supply chain systems, in the online store likes–Amazon.com.There are four main vital issues that need to be addressed with the aim of the study – information collection, planning, systematized workflow, and modern updated business models. ECommerce business solutions provide the benefits of supply chain with reduction in costs, flexibility, and faster response times. However, the beginning of the ecommerce era, has led along a number of critical issues that determine the success of an eco mmerce business online.The e-supply chains of the online ecommerce websites, which are loaded with information systems have covered every part on the World Wide Web and there are loads of applications that are running with the help of this technology. The organization of an e- supply chain needs a global supply chain transparency, which in turn can only be achieved through incorporation of the various sub-information systems that are present within the ecommerce supply chain.This visibility or transparency can only be achieved if all the parts of the supply chain management system of an eCommerce site come on a common platform to share knowledge and real time information with the help of systems or electronic markets that collect and supply data bases about the transactions. The e-supply chain can be automated and well planned in order to deliver more productivity and increase the response of the eCommerce system. Some of the solutions that have been devised and also used up in the present are examples of electronic marketplaces like e-bay, amazon. com, mutual exchanges and Business to Business process controllers.There are various example of applications and other processes that are used up to form the backbone of any information system for an e-commerce trade, like CPFR, VMI and make to order. This paper is an attempt to decompose the typical nature of an e-supply chain in terms of information systems for an online store – Amanzon. com. In the beginning, we start with the nature of supply chains and later, we will look into the emerging trends with Ammazon. com, which have suitably been adapted to its eCommerce supply chains.Basics of a Supply chain1. PlanningThis is the premeditated segment of Supply chain management. This is the first step of SCM, in which a strategy is prepared for the efficient management of all the resources that are needed in meeting the market demands, less costs, high quality and value to the customer. The business plans are d eveloped in co-ordination with the suppliers who will be a part of the manufacturing process of new products.2. Resource allocationAfter a plan of action has been created, the next step of a Supply chain management is to select the suppliers who will deliver the goods and services. A number of issues arise here – pricing, time of delivery, payment procedures, monitoring, inventory of goods, shipment, verification, authorization and improving the two party relationships. These actions put together, give way to a well managed supply chain.3. Production and commercializationThis is the industrialized manufacturing step included within a supply chain. Most often this is the most complex step that needs first-rate handling at all levels.It consists of scheduling the activities, which form the various stages of production, testing, packaging and the final preparation of a product. The production stage is the most metric-intensive part of the supply chain as it can give vital data a nalysis for measuring the quality levels, cost of production, worker productivity. According to According to Lambert and Cooper (2000), the mangers who are in charge of the product development and commercialization cycle of the product must:synchronize with customer relationship management to recognize client-articulated needs.decide on resources and dealers in combination with procurement.Develop a manufacture technology in developing a proper flow to manufacture and incorporate the best supply chain flow for the product/market combination.4. TransportationThis stage of the supply chain is also referred to as Logistics by many experts. This stage is concerned with the movement of the final finished product to the customer. In physical terms, the customer is the final destination of the product, which is in turn linked through a marketing channel.This stage includes the co-ordination of order receipts, warehousing management, selecting transport carriers, shipment, and distribution of the product to customers and setting up an invoicing system to receive payments.5. Rate of ReturnThis stage concerns with the analysis of the whole activity that has been carried out as different parts of the Supply Chain. Every activity is broken down into sub activities so that the investment and rate of return per activity is calculated. This also consists of creating a network for receiving feedbacks from customers.Therefore as suggested above, any traditional supply chain consists of many stages that include the participation of one or more companies. Any supply chain includes more than one company tied up together in a series of supplier-customer relationships. These relationships define all the activities from the purchase of raw materials to the delivery of finished goods to the end client. The raw materials enter into a manufacturing process and are transformed into finished goods, which are supplied at the distribution centers. The finished goods are then supplied to cu stomers through the market.Supply chain and information Systems Successful trade thrives on information. Any industry that cannot boast of a strong information system for the Supply chain Management will never render the desired results. The importance of an efficient information system and how it works to improve the performance of ecommerce sites, its various applications, thereby giving a substantial improve in rate of return and saving money by utilization of specific applications in receiving, production tracking, quality control, and transport operations.To gain competitive advantage, e-companies have been using a number of schemes to increase their source of information and visibility into their tasks, many of them turned to enterprise resource planning or ERP, customer relationship management (CRM), supply chain and various other management softwares. Definitely, these softwares and their respective applications can be highly effective, but their efficiency is hampered when the data they require is not timely collected and presented before them.That is why the most important concern is providing cost-efficient and effective tools for providing accurate and on time data to enterprise applications to gain advantage. Supply Chain Management and information systems deals with the flow of goods from the firm, along with the facilities, to the final destination – customer. In this new era of intense competition, supply chain efficacies and its efficient implementation are not only necessary, but also the requirements for survival for any industry.A proper performance based supply chain management contributes to higher revenue, low operation cost, better warehousing management, order tracking and processing, packaging, and added satisfaction for the customers. Supply chain management has been engaged in organizations round the world, performing critical tasks. In addition, the rising global economy and the world-wide establishment of e-commerce also sh arpened the premeditated significance of supply chain management and has twisted the old methods so that they take advantage by benefiting from supply chain strategy and planning as a competitive tool.By the integration of supply chain, with customer relationship plans and an effective financial management, it has become easier for any firm to stay in firm control of business activities and generate the results that are aimed for. However, according to the study made, there has been a significant record about the optimal productivity that could have been achieved as compared to what the organizations are achieving at the moment. There are some serious problems that have come to the surface or were known to be existing since a long time, within the Supply Chain Management systems.For example, a problem with the Distribution network in Amazon has been cited at many instances, a many distribution centers, causing difficulties with suppliers, production facilities, and distribution outl ets. At the same time, the inefficient data distribution has been identified as a cause that leads to loss of integration of various processes within the Supply chain and causes the inability to predict demands, forecasts, inventory and transportations needs.The issue of a proper and well defined distribution strategy has also been acknowledged lately by the experts which discusses the option of centralized and decentralized distribution strategies, shipment etc. Due to these and many other factors, it has become vital, that the present practices of Supply chain and information chain management be revised and studied in depth to render the process to become more effective and profitable for the online business sites.The use of Information technology has become unavoidable for imparting solutions for a variety of supply chain management and design problems. These IT skills must work in unison to develop the Business to Business and Business to Customer needs. Various IT solutions tha t have been developed today, implement solutions for e-collaboration, faster response methods, jointly managed warehousing facilities and transportation. One of the most common IT applications within a supply chain is that of bar codes which makes data collection accurate and fast.Most of the enterprises apply the bar code shipping labels or RFID application on their finished goods that are about to leave the company premises. But with changing trends, mangers have learned that if the use of bar codes is pushed back into the production system, then it provides tremendous labor and material savings. These changes lead to less time delays and this times saved can easily be converted into financial benefits and increased productivity.Similarly, the use of Direct Store Delivery (DSD) and other route accounting operations when combined with mobile printing applications saves a lot of time and reduces the cost by a remarkable amount and in turn increases the return on Investment. Likewise , there are a number of IT applications that can benefit eCommerce sites to develop its information system so as to meet the customer requirements. Business information, production reports, warehousing data, inventory problems can be supported with the help of better managed supply chain management solutions coupled with some of these IT solutions.

Mohsin Hamid Essay

Mohsin Hamid is the author of three novels: Moth Smoke (published in 2000), a finalist for the PEN/Hemingway Award; The Reluctant Fundamentalist (2007), a million-copy international bestseller that was shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize, made into a feature film, and named one of the books that defined the decade by the Guardian; and, most recently, How to Get Filthy Rich in Rising Asia (2013). His fiction has appeared in the New Yorker, Granta, and the Paris Review and been translated into over 30 languages. The recipient of numerous awards, he has been called â€Å"one of his generation’s most inventive and gifted writers† by the New York Times, â€Å"one of the most talented and formally audacious writers of his generation† by the Daily Telegraph, and â€Å"one of the most important writers working today† by the Daily Beast. He also regularly writes essays on themes ranging from literature to politics and is a contributor to publications around the world, including the New York Times, the Guardian, the New York Review of Books, Dawn, and La Repubblica. A self-described mongrel, he was born in 1971 in Lahore, Pakistan, and has lived about half his life there. The rest he has spent drifting between places such as London, New York, California, the Philippines, and Italy. â€Å"Moth Smoke† Moth Smoke is a steamy (in both senses) and often darkly amusing book about sex, drugs, and class warfare in postcolonial Asia. Hamid struc- tures Moth Smoke somewhat like a murder trial. On the stand is Daru, a cynical, hash-loving 28-year-old bank drone and onetime boxer now accused of running over a child. Daru relates his decline and fall after being fired from the bank (a moment he compares to a â€Å"quick sidestep in un- reality, like meeting your mother when you’re tripping†) in chapters that alternate with self-justifying monologues by the witnesses against him. Moth Smoke foregrounds Daru’s slacker predisposition and resentment toward the aristocrats (with whom he associates but cannot join) against an apocalyptic background of nuclear testing reminiscent ofRobert Aldrich’s 1955 film-version take onMickey Spillane’s Kiss Me Deadly. An underdog redress occurs when Daru steals his rich best friend Ozi’s wife, Mumtaz, a iscontented young mother who has become a clandestine investigative reporter since moving back to Lahore, Pakistan, from New York. Their romance generates big heat and smoke and Hamid leaves no nook or cranny of the fire metaphor unexplored, reinvigorating its archetypal metaforce with everything from the titular play of moth and flame to the apocalyptic burnout of nuclear war. When Daru and Mumtaz meet for the first time, she leaves a smoldering cigarette butt in an ashtray bed. â€Å"I crush mine into it,† relates Daru, â€Å"grinding until both stop burning. Daru’s meager resources wane as the couple’s passion intensifies, and their relationship—not unlike that binding India to Pakistan—threatens to destroy everyone around them. Halfway through the book, to cool things off, Hamid tosses in an only slightly ironic chapter titled â€Å"what lovely weather we’re having (or the importance of air-conditioning),† in which Daru’s former economics professor discusses how Pakistan’s elite â€Å"have managed to re-create for themselves the living conditions of say, Sweden, without leaving the dusty plains of the subcontinent. Although the novel is woozy with alcohol, hash, Ecstasy, and heroin, they serve less as pleasure vehicles than as tokens of societal decadence. Daru’s social status plummets even further when he becomes a part-time dealer to the rich kids who overpay for his wares. Maneuvering in the background are the hardcore Islamic â€Å"fundos,† whose one-size-fits-all fanaticism, Hamid suggests, possesses seductive qualities no less compelling than Ozi’s self-righteous aria justifying his own corruption (he’s not a bad guy, he argues; he just makes people jealous). As for Daru, Hamid leaves unclear whether it’s class rancor that drives him over the brink, or the displaced nurture he derives from bad-mother Mumtaz. The Falstaffian figure of Murad Badshah, the rickshaw driver and dealer who enlists Daru in a wack scheme to knock over upscale boutiques, offers comedy relief. â€Å"Armed robbery is like public speaking,† says Murad. â€Å"Both offer a brief period in the limelight, the risk of public humiliation, the opportunity for crowd control. † Daru’s moment in the spotlight goes awry during a suspenseful scene whose panicky, botched outcome is pure Tarantino mishegaas. By novel’s end, the morally and financially impoverished Daru—all thirst, no quenching, and recently introduced to the joys of heroin smoke—amuses himself by playing desultory games of â€Å"moth badminton† with the insects that have overtaken his barren home. The atmosphere is vacant and corrupt, the sense of loss reminiscent of the empty, overgrown swimming pools that populate J. G. Ballard’s Empire of the Sun, the sort of slipstream masterpiece Hamid obviously admires. But Moth Smoke reads more like a tough and sinewy B movie, the kind whose dark complexities expand the more you ponder it. â€Å"The Reluctant Fundamentalist† Some books are acts of courage, maybe because the author tries out an unproven style, addresses an unpopular theme or allows characters to say things that no one wants to hear. Mohsin Hamid’s novel, The Reluctant Fundamentalist, does all those things. Told in the form of an extended monologue, the novel reflects on a young Pakistani’s almost five years in America. After excelling at Princeton, Changez had become a highly regarded employee at a prestigious financial firm. He seemed to have achieved the perfect American life. We know from the beginning, however, that it will not last long. Changez narrates his story from a cafe in Lahore, his birthplace, while speaking to an American man whose role is unclear. Changez tells him, â€Å"Yes, I was happy in that moment. I felt bathed in a warm sense of accomplishment. Nothing troubled me; I was a young New Yorker with the city at my feet. † (Tellingly, while he didn’t see himself as a foreigner during this time, the two colleagues closest to him were also outsiders: one â€Å"non-white,† the other a gay man who grew up poor. ) In the aftermath of Sept. 11, as the tone of the country becomes more hostile, Changez’s corporate cloak lifts, and his life in America no longer seems so perfect. Paralleling the narrative of Changez’s work life is the tale of his romantic involvement with Erica, an elegant and well-to-do New Yorker who has emotional baggage that eventually leads to a breakdown. The impossible love story softens the book, allowing Changez to tell the same story from a different perspective. Both of his potential conquests (America, Erica) have deep appeal, yet both have been damaged, making it impossible for them to be part of Changez’s life. Hamid’s writing is strongest when Changez is analyzing the finer points of being a foreigner, â€Å"well-liked as an exotic acquaintance. When he goes out with Erica, he takes â€Å"advantage of the ethnic exception clause that is written into every code of etiquette† and wears a kurta and jeans because his blazer looks shabby. Later, when he is back in Pakistan and his parents ask for details of his American life, he says, â€Å"It was odd to speak of that world here, as it would be odd to s ing in a mosque; what is natural in one place can seem unnatural in another, and some concepts travel poorly, if at all. † Perhaps as a result of speaking Urdu and English, Hamid’s style is delightfully distinct. His clever tale lingers in the mind, partly because of the nature and originality of the troubled love story and partly because of Changez himself, who is not always likable. Or noble. The courage of The Reluctant Fundamentalist is in the telling of a story about a Pakistani man who makes it and then throws it away because he doesn’t want it anymore, because he realizes that making it in America is not what he thought it was or what it used to be. The monologue form allows for an intimate conversation, as the reader and the American listener become one. Are we sitting across from Changez at a table in Lahore, joining him in a sumptuous dinner? Do his comments cause us to bristle, making us more and more uncomfortable? Extreme times call for extreme reactions, extreme writing. Hamid has done something extraordinary with this novel, and for those who want a different voice, a different view of the aftermath of 9/11, The Reluctant Fundamentalist is well worth reading. â€Å"How to Get Filthy Rich in Rising Asia† The city of â€Å"Rising Asia† remains nameless, but through the lens of Hamid’s critical eye, we understand it to be a metropolis closely resembling Lahore, Pakistan. Drones fly overhead. Corruption, terrorism, and violence are everyday occurrences. Written in a fast-paced, second-person narration a la Jay McInerney’s â€Å"Bright Lights, Big City,† we track our nameless hero, known simply as â€Å"you,† through his journey from poor rural boy to successful tycoon of a bottled-water empire. Similarly, â€Å"Filthy Rich’’ ends up being both a personal saga of love and ambition and a pointed satiric commentary on the head-turning changes in parts of the developing world. We first meet our hero as a child, â€Å"huddled, shivering, on the packed earth under [his] mother’s cot one cold dewy morning. † He’s sickly, infected with hepatitis E, living with his family of five in a cramped, one-room shanty. There’s nothing desirable about village life. Sex between his parents is a ritual undertaken entirely clothed and right next to the children pretending to be asleep. But better things lie ahead once the family migrates to the city, a place where â€Å"wealthy neighborhoods are often divided by a single boulevard from factories and markets and graveyards . . separated from the homes of the impoverished only by an open sewer, railroad track, or narrow alley. † It’s the bleak disparity between the rich and the poor that our hero is determined to cross in order to get filthy rich in rising Asia. Lest we forget, we’re still in the land of self-help, and in proper prescriptive fashion, each chapter homes in on a goal to improving one’s station (â€Å"Get an Education,† â€Å"Befriend a Bureaucrat,† â€Å"Dance with Debt†) and each is a glimpse into our protagonist’s career at a different stage of life, from childhood to old age. He enters the workforce as a teenager, working the night shift as a delivery boy of pirated DVDs. As a result, he meets his soulmate, known only as â€Å"the pretty girl. † She works at a beauty salon but is destined for bigger things. And he’s a poor boy still wet behind the ears searching his â€Å"inner salmon† for the proper motivation. Their relationship develops into a mutual crush, and she deflowers him, but this is a love that could never be, and she finds a better mate to run off with, a marketing manager in advertising. Love, we are told, only â€Å"dampens the fire in the steam furnace of ambition, robbing of essential propulsion an already fraught upriver journey to the heart of financial success. † Hamid’s ear for replicating infomercial mumbo-jumbo is fine-tuned, producing some hilarious moments of dramatic irony. As the novel progresses through our narrator’s life’s work, from street salesman of â€Å"non-expired-labeled expired-goods† to his true calling, the bottled-water trade — a business so dirty that he must lie, cheat, cook his books, make bribes, and sometimes murder — it reveals a rather moving portrait of a life lived in regret and denial. He marries the wrong woman, fails as a father to his only son, and once his bottled-water business becomes an empire, he loses it, and the rise toward staggering wealth becomes a quick plummet to the bottom. There’s an unfortunate side effect to a novel of such admirable ambition. Hamid attempts to find the universal in the non-specific. And it’s an experiment that’s not completely successful. With his intentional generality and the many nameless players— â€Å"you,† â€Å"your mother,† â€Å"your father,† â€Å"your wife,† â€Å"your brother-in-law† — Hamid has created a set of characters we begin to love but are unable to clearly see. But it’s the lifelong affair the narrator has with the pretty girl that helps us regain our focus time and again. Their lives parallel over the course of several decades. As he rises in business, his infatuation grows, and he tracks her career as a model on billboards, then as a TV personality on his wife’s favorite cooking show, then as a small-business owner in her own right. When the two come together, Hamid allows these scenes to linger pleasantly on, and in turn, his two characters appear at their most human. Hamid has admitted that the genesis of â€Å"How to Get Filthy Rich in Rising Asia† springs from the idea that reading novels can at times feel like a form of self-help. We empathize with a novel’s characters, seek their wisdom, experience their faults, find solace in their lives. Hamid’s novel embodies this concept in a tremendously profound and entertaining way, bringing to the page, front and center, why we read fiction at all. And the answer may very well be what his novel proposes: to get someone who isn’t yourself to help you.

Free Essays on History Of Internet

Origins of the Internet The first recorded description of the social interactions that could be enabled through networking was a series of memos written by J.C.R. Licklider of MIT in August 1962 discussing his "Galactic Network" concept. He envisioned a globally interconnected set of computers through which everyone could quickly access data and programs from any site. In spirit, the concept was very much like the Internet of today. Licklider was the first head of the computer research program at DARPA, 4 starting in October 1962. While at DARPA he convinced his successors at DARPA, Ivan Sutherland, Bob Taylor, and MIT researcher Lawrence G. Roberts, of the importance of this networking concept. Leonard Kleinrock at MIT published the first paper on packet switching theory in July 1961 and the first book on the subject in 1964. Kleinrock convinced Roberts of the theoretical feasibility of communications using packets rather than circuits, which was a major step along the path towards computer networking. The other key step was to make the computers talk together. To explore this, in 1965 working with Thomas Merrill, Roberts connected the TX-2 computer in Mass. to the Q-32 in California with a low speed dial-up telephone line creating the first (however small) wide-area computer network ever built. The result of this experiment was the realization that the time-shared computers could work well together, running programs and retrieving data as necessary on the remote machine, but that the circuit switched telephone system was totally inadequate for the job. Kleinrock's conviction of the need for packet switching was confirmed. In late 1966 Roberts went to DARPA to develop the computer network concept and quickly put together his plan for the "ARPANET", publishing it in 1967. At the conference where he presented the paper, there was also a paper on a packet network concept from the UK by Donald Davies and Roger Scantlebury of NPL. Scantl... Free Essays on History Of Internet Free Essays on History Of Internet Origins of the Internet The first recorded description of the social interactions that could be enabled through networking was a series of memos written by J.C.R. Licklider of MIT in August 1962 discussing his "Galactic Network" concept. He envisioned a globally interconnected set of computers through which everyone could quickly access data and programs from any site. In spirit, the concept was very much like the Internet of today. Licklider was the first head of the computer research program at DARPA, 4 starting in October 1962. While at DARPA he convinced his successors at DARPA, Ivan Sutherland, Bob Taylor, and MIT researcher Lawrence G. Roberts, of the importance of this networking concept. Leonard Kleinrock at MIT published the first paper on packet switching theory in July 1961 and the first book on the subject in 1964. Kleinrock convinced Roberts of the theoretical feasibility of communications using packets rather than circuits, which was a major step along the path towards computer networking. The other key step was to make the computers talk together. To explore this, in 1965 working with Thomas Merrill, Roberts connected the TX-2 computer in Mass. to the Q-32 in California with a low speed dial-up telephone line creating the first (however small) wide-area computer network ever built. The result of this experiment was the realization that the time-shared computers could work well together, running programs and retrieving data as necessary on the remote machine, but that the circuit switched telephone system was totally inadequate for the job. Kleinrock's conviction of the need for packet switching was confirmed. In late 1966 Roberts went to DARPA to develop the computer network concept and quickly put together his plan for the "ARPANET", publishing it in 1967. At the conference where he presented the paper, there was also a paper on a packet network concept from the UK by Donald Davies and Roger Scantlebury of NPL. Scantl...

Why Water Is More Dense Than Ice

Why Water Is More Dense Than Ice Water is unusual in that its maximum density occurs as a liquid, rather than as a solid. This means ice floats on water. Density is the mass per unit volume of a material. For all substances, density changes with temperature. The mass of material does not change, but the volume or space that it occupies either increases or decreases with temperature. The vibration of molecules increases as temperature rises and they absorb more energy. For most substances, this increases the space between molecules, making warmer liquids less dense than cooler solids. Its All About Hydrogen Bonds However, this effect is offset in water by hydrogen bonding. In liquid water, hydrogen bonds connect each water  molecule to approximately 3.4 other water molecules. When water freezes into ice, it crystallizes into a rigid lattice that increases the space between molecules, with each  molecule hydrogen bonded to 4 other molecules.

The processes needed to effectively plan, implement and manage the Essay

The processes needed to effectively plan, implement and manage the capacity of a manufacturing organisation - Essay Example Through manufacturing capacity development, organisations determine the most efficient methods for manufacturing through analysing different manufacturing processes, which can be utilised in manufacturing of similar products. The management of the manufacturing processes aims at increasing the manufacturing capacity for various manufacturing plants. Proper management of manufacturing processes would ensure maximum manufacturing capacity, through maintaining the highest achievable production with available resources. The manufacturing capacity should also be properly managed and controlled in order to achieve significant benefits (Ceryan and Koren, 2009). Proper utilisation of resources, therefore, becomes fundamental to effectiveness of manufacturing capacity, under varying business conditions. Consideration of the impacts of the variations could enable an organisation achieve desirable manufacturing capacities, with limited manufacturing resources. The manufacturing process Manufact uring generally refers to the processes involved in transforming raw materials into usable products (Grewal, 2011). The manufacturing process remains highly dependent on the economic systems existing within the manufacturing regions. Within free market economies, manufacturing aims at producing large quantities of products. Collectivist economies produce a manufacturing system aimed at supplying products based on government direction, while mixed economies are characterised by numerous governmental regulations on manufacturing processes. The manufacturing policy adopted by various plants therefore, remains highly dependent on the economic system under which the manufacturing process occurs. While economic systems affect the manufacturing design adopted by manufacturers, the manufacturing capacity remains independent of economic systems, within the manufacturing region. This capacity becomes solely dependent of the processes adopted within the manufacturing system. The processes are utilised in determining the efficient methods which can effectively use limited resources and achieve immense production outcomes. The manufacturing process adopted could be utilised in development of the plan being adopted to ensure maximum return on investment. The manufacturing process normally defines the technology being adopted in converting the various raw materials into consumable products. The process involves the application of various technological methods and systems utilised in converting raw materials into consumable products (Sweeney, Williams and Camm, 2009). In choosing the manufacturing process, the human capital capacity and other resources become fundamental considerations, for decision-makers in ensuring efficiency of manufacturing. Proper utilisation of available resources could result in increased output while utilising similar manufacturing methods, and having equal resources. The manufacturing capacity seeks to establish the highest production level achievab le through utilisation of available resources. The output remains a significant determinant of manufacturing capacity for a specified manufacturing plant. Planning The planning process for manufacturing capacity remains essential in establishing various methods which could be utilised to ensure maximum output from available resources. The optimum capacity building must be established during the planning process (Grewal, 2011). During this stage, the fundamental issues considered include the amount of capacity required and the type of systems which should be adopted. In determining the required capacity, the market target for the goods becomes essential. The decision-makers must have knowledge of the market for the products. Fast-moving consumer goods, for example, would involve